Laxatives
Laxatives are drugs that loosen the bowels and promote intestinal evacuation. They are indicated in constipation and for bowel clearance before diagnostic procedures or surgery.
Aloe
Family: Liliaceae Biological Source: Dried juice of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis Miller. Physical Characters: Bright yellowish to reddish-brown or black; penetrating odour; nauseous and bitter taste. Chemical Constituents: Barbaloin (a C-glycoside), aloe-emodin, and resin. Uses:
- Irritant purgative and stimulant laxative
- Improves digestive and oral health
- Clears acne and relieves anal fissures
- Used in cosmetics and treatment of radiation burns
Castor Oil
Family: Euphorbiaceae Biological Source: Fixed oil obtained by cold expression of seeds of Ricinus communis. Physical Characters: Pale yellow or almost colourless liquid; nauseating odour; slightly acrid taste. Chemical Constituents: Triglyceride of ricinoleic acid (about 90%), fatty acids including linoleic, stearic, and isostearic acids. Uses:
- Stimulative/irritant laxative and cathartic
- Commercial lubricant
- Natural emollient for dry skin, massage, and hair treatment
Ispaghula (Isabgol)
Family: Plantaginaceae Biological Source: Dried seeds of Plantago ovata Forskal. Physical Characters: Pinkish-grey or brown; no odour; mucilaginous and bland taste. Chemical Constituents: Mucilage consisting of pentosan and aldobionic acid. Uses:
- Treatment of constipation, dysentery, chronic diarrhoea, duodenal ulcers, and piles
- Acts as a demulcent, laxative, and emollient
Senna Leaves
Family: Leguminosae Biological Source: Dried leaflets of Cassia angustifolia. Physical Characters: Light green; faint odour; bitter and mucilaginous taste; 3–5 cm long. Chemical Constituents: Sennosides A, B, C, and D (not less than 2% hydroxyanthracene derivatives); also contains rhein, kaempferol, aloe-emodin, and isorhamnetin. Uses:
- Stimulant cathartic and irritant purgative
- Increases the tone of smooth muscles in the large intestine
- Prescribed with carminatives to prevent griping
Cardiotonics
Cardiotonic drugs increase the force of contraction of the heart muscle (myocardium). Examples include Digitalis, Squill, Arjuna bark, and several synthetic agents.
Key cardiotonic drugs and their uses:
- Digoxin — Treats heart failure and chronic atrial fibrillation; one of the oldest drugs in cardiology.
- Milrinone — Short-term treatment of heart failure; increases cardiac output and relaxes blood vessels.
- Dexrazoxane — Protects the heart from anthracycline chemotherapy damage in breast cancer patients.
- Dopamine — Improves heart pumping strength and blood flow to the kidneys.
- Dobutamine — Short-term treatment of cardiac decompensation due to weakened heart muscle.
- Lisinopril — Treats high blood pressure in adults and children over 6 years.
Digitalis (Foxglove Leaves)
Family: Scrophulariaceae Biological Source: Dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea, collected and dried below 60°C. Chemical Constituents: Cardiac glycosides (cardenolides) 0.2–0.45%; purpurea glycosides; also contains gitaloxin, glucogitaloxin, and glucoverodoxin. Uses:
- Congestive cardiac failure — increases cardiac output and relieves venous congestion
- Slows ventricular rate in atrial fibrillation and flutter
- Increases contractile power of the heart muscle
- Increases excitability of cardiac muscles
Arjuna
Family: Combretaceae Biological Source: Dried stem bark of Terminalia arjuna. Chemical Constituents: Triterpenoid saponins, arjunolic acid, arjunic acid, arjungenin, β-sitosterol, ellagic acid. Uses:
- Primary use as a cardiotonic — improves blood supply to the heart
- Also used in ulcers, fractures, cirrhosis of liver, ischaemic heart disease, and hypertension
- Acts as a diuretic and astringent
Carminatives and Gastrointestinal Regulators
Carminatives (from the Latin carminare — “to cleanse”) are drugs that relieve pain and discomfort in the stomach and intestines. They are prescribed for indigestion, gastric discomfort, and loss of appetite. Gastrointestinal regulators normalize GI tract activity, including bitters, anti-emetics, and appetizers.
Coriander
Family: Umbelliferae Biological Source: Dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum Linn. Physical Characters: Yellowish-brown to brown; aromatic odour; spicy taste; 2–4 mm diameter. Chemical Constituents: Coriandrol (D-linalool), volatile oil containing linalool and pinene; rich in Vitamin A (leaves) and Vitamin C and carotene (leaves). Uses:
- Aromatic carminative and stimulant
- Flavouring agent; used with purgatives to prevent griping
- Anti-rheumatic and anti-arthritic (contains cineole and linoleic acid)
- Prevents flatulence and controls spasmodic pain; used to treat osteoporosis and anaemia
Fennel
Family: Umbelliferae Biological Source: Dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare. Physical Characters: Green to yellowish-brown; sweet aromatic odour; strongly aromatic and mucilaginous taste; 5–10 × 2–4 mm. Chemical Constituents: 3–7% volatile oil; chief active constituents are Fenchone (ketone) and Anethole; also contains protein, fat, minerals, fibre, and carbohydrates. Uses:
- Carminative, aromatic stimulant, and flavouring agent
- Treatment of colic and dyspeptic disease in infants
- Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant
- Used for menstrual disorders, dyspepsia, flatulence, and cough
Cardamom
Family: Zingiberaceae Biological Source: Dried ripe fruits of Elettaria cardamomum Maton. Physical Characters: Green to pale buff; strongly aromatic odour and taste; capsules 2 cm in length. Chemical Constituents: Terpineol, Borneol. Uses:
- Aromatic carminative and stimulant
- Flavouring agent
- Treatment of respiratory disorders — asthma, bronchitis, cough, nausea, vomiting, indigestion, flatulence
Ginger
Family: Zingiberaceae Biological Source: Rhizomes of Zingiber officinale. Physical Characters: Buff coloured; agreeable and aromatic odour; agreeable and pungent taste. Chemical Constituents: 1–2% volatile oil; acrid resinous matter (5–8%); starch; pungent principle gingerol (yellowish oily substance). Uses:
- Aromatic carminative and stomach stimulant
- Flavouring agent; used in mouthwashes, beverages, and liquors
Clove
Family: Myrtaceae Biological Source: Dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus. Physical Characters: Crimson to dark brown; slightly aromatic odour; pungent and aromatic taste; 10–17.5 mm long. Chemical Constituents: Not less than 15% clove oil; eugenol 70–90%; eugenol acetate, caryophyllene. Uses:
- Dental analgesic, carminative stimulant, aromatic, and antiseptic
- Used in perfumery and manufacture of vanillin
- Used in preparation of cigarettes
Black Pepper
Family: Piperaceae Biological Source: Dried unripe fruits of Piper nigrum Linn. Physical Characters: Blackish-brown or greyish-black; aromatic and pungent odour; bitter taste; 3.5–6 mm diameter. Chemical Constituents: Piperine alkaloid (5–9%), volatile oil (1.25%), pungent resin (6%), piperidine, starch (about 30%). Uses: Aromatic and stimulant.
Asafoetida (Hing)
Family: Umbelliferae Biological Source: Oleogum resin obtained from incisions in the rhizomes and roots of Ferula foetida and related species. Physical Characters: Yellowish-white changing to reddish-brown; penetrating and alliaceous odour; bitter taste; tears 0.5–3 cm diameter. Chemical Constituents: Resin (40–65%), volatile oil (4–20%); resin consists chiefly of asaresinotannol combined with ferulic acid. Uses:
- Carminative, nervine tonic, intestinal antiseptic, and flavouring agent
- Used in veterinary medicine and for culinary purposes
Cinnamon
Family: Lauraceae Biological Source: Dried inner bark of coppiced shoots of Cinnamomum zeylanicum. Physical Characters: Dull yellowish-brown; aromatic odour. Chemical Constituents: Bark contains 0.5–1.0% volatile oils and 1.2% tannins; cinnamon oil contains 60–70% cinnamaldehyde, 5–10% eugenol, and terpenes. Uses:
- Flavouring agent, antiseptic, carminative, stomachic, mild astringent
- Used as a spice, condiment, in candies and perfumes
Nutmeg
Family: Myristicaceae Biological Source: Dried kernels of seeds of Myristica fragrans Houtten. Physical Characters: Greenish-brown or brown; strongly aromatic odour; pungent and aromatic taste; 20–30 mm long. Chemical Constituents: Elemicin, myristicin, safrole, geraniol, terpineol; 5–15% volatile oil; 30–40% fat; starch and saponin. Uses:
- Stimulant, flavouring agent, and carminative
- Used externally for chronic rheumatism
- Also used for diarrhoea, intestinal gas, nausea, and kidney disease
Astringents
Astringents cause contraction or shrinkage of tissues, dry up secretions, arrest haemorrhages, and reduce secretions of the mucous membranes by precipitating proteins.
Black Catechu (Kattha)
Family: Leguminosae Biological Source: Dried aqueous extract of the heartwood of Acacia catechu. Physical Characters: Light brown to black; no odour; very astringent taste. Chemical Constituents: About 10% acacatechin; also contains catechu-red, quercetin, and gum. Uses:
- Styptic and antidiarrhoeal agent
- Used for relaxed conditions of throat, mouth, and gums
- Used as an astringent for cooling and digestive purposes
Myrobalan (Haritaki)
Family: Combretaceae Biological Source: Mature dried fruits of Terminalia chebula. Chemical Constituents: About 30% hydrolysable tannins — chebulinic acid, chebulagic acid, D-galloyl glucose; also free tannic acid, gallic acid, ellagic acid, and anthraquinone glycosides. Uses:
- Used externally for chronic ulcers, wounds, and piles; also as a stomachic
- One of the three ingredients in the famous Ayurvedic preparation Triphala
- Used in dental preparations, dyeing, and tanning
Drugs Acting on the Nervous System
The human nervous system is divided into the Central Nervous System (CNS) — brain and spinal cord — and the Peripheral/Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) — which controls respiration, circulation, digestion, and body temperature.
Hyoscyamus (Henbane)
Family: Solanaceae Biological Source: Dried leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger Linn. Chemical Constituents: Hyoscyamine (main alkaloid); also atropine and hyoscine (scopolamine). Uses:
- Antispasmodic, hypnotic, mild diuretic
- Relieves pain in cystitis and spasms of the urinary tract
- Relieves griping caused by drastic purgatives
- Sedative and anti-asthmatic
Belladonna
Family: Solanaceae Biological Source: Dried leaves and aerial parts of Atropa belladonna Linn. Chemical Constituents: l-Hyoscyamine (main alkaloid); also atropine, apoatropine, belladonnine, choline, cuscohygrine, and chrysatropic acid. Uses:
- Reduces secretion of sweat, salivary, and gastric glands
- Parasympathetic depressant
- Used in narrow-angle glaucoma, bladder obstruction, severe ulcerative colitis, and bowel obstruction
Ephedra (Ma-huang)
Family: Ephedraceae Biological Source: Dried young stem of Ephedra gerardiana Wall. Chemical Constituents: 1–1.5% total alkaloids; chief alkaloids are ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, l-methyl ephedrine, and d-methyl iso-ephedrine. Uses:
- Early relief of asthma
- Used for whooping cough, nasal congestion, cough, fever, and chills
Opium
Family: Papaveraceae Biological Source: Dried latex from unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum. Chemical Constituents: Alkaloids — morphine, narcotine, codeine (occurring in largest natural amounts). Uses:
- Relief of pain (analgesic)
- Antidiarrhoeal agent
- Used for common cold, cough, and insomnia
- Slows intestinal movement
Tea Leaves
Family: Theaceae Biological Source: Prepared leaves and leaf buds of Thea sinensis. Chemical Constituents: Caffeine (1–5%); tannins (10–20% gallotannic acid); small quantities of theobromine and theophylline; yellow volatile oil (responsible for agreeable odour); protein, wax, and resin. Uses:
- Stimulant, astringent, and diuretic
- Used for treatment of cancer, heart disease, and diabetes; lowers cholesterol
- Promotes mental alertness
- Antimicrobial properties
Coffee Seeds
Family: Rubiaceae Biological Source: Dried ripe seeds of Coffea arabica Linn. Chemical Constituents: Caffeine (2–3%); tannins (3–5%); proteins (13%); fixed oils (10–15%); sugars (dextrin, glucose); chlorogenic/caffeotannic acid; nicotinic acid. Uses:
- Cardiotonic action; stimulates diuretic action
- Folk remedy for fever, gout, diarrhoea, cough, headache, asthma, migraine, and malaria
- Flavouring agent in ice cream, pastries, and candies
Coca
Family: Erythroxylaceae Biological Source: Dried leaves of Erythroxylon coca. Chemical Constituents: 0.7–1.5% total alkaloids; chief constituents are cocaine and cinnamylcocaine; also hygrine, hygroline, cuscohygrine, and tropacocaine. Uses:
- Cocaine has stimulant action on the CNS
- Leaves relieve hunger and fatigue
- Local anaesthetic on skin and mucous membranes
- Used in dental anaesthesia and minor surgeries of the eye, ear, nose, and throat
- Cocaine’s chemical structure led to the development of synthetic anaesthetics like Novocain
Antihypertensives
Antihypertensive drugs treat high blood pressure and prevent complications like stroke and myocardial infarction. Hypertension results from narrowing of peripheral blood vessels.
Rauwolfia (Sarpagandha)
Family: Apocynaceae Biological Source: Dried roots of Rauvolfia serpentina. Chemical Constituents: Alkaloids — reserpine and rescinnamine (main therapeutic agents); also ajmaline, ajmalicine, indole alkaloids, and iridoid glycoside. Uses:
- Antihypertensive — causes vasodilation and lowers blood pressure by acting on the vasomotor centre
- Soothes the nervous system by depressant action on cerebral centres
- Studied for treatment of mental diseases, migraine headaches, and autism in children
Antitussives
Antitussives (from Latin tussis — cough) suppress cough through central or peripheral mechanisms and hasten expectoration.
Vasaka Leaves (Adulsa)
Family: Acanthaceae Biological Source: Dried and fresh leaves of Adhatoda vasica Nees. Chemical Constituents: Quinazoline alkaloids — vasicine, vasicinone, and 6-hydroxy vasicine; also volatile oil, betain, vasakine, and Adhatoda acid. Uses:
- Bronchodilator and expectorant (in syrup preparations)
- Vasicine shows oxytocic properties similar to oxytocin
- Helps in asthma; reduces inflammation of airways and lungs
- Useful in dyspepsia, gastritis, and acidity; reduces inflammation of sinuses
Tolu Balsam
Family: Leguminosae Biological Source: Obtained from the trunk of Myroxylon balsamum Linn. Chemical Constituents: Benzyl cinnamyl esters of benzoic and cinnamic acids; small quantities of vanillin and styrol. Uses:
- Expectorant, flavouring agent, and antiseptic
- Used in preparation of confectionery, chewing gums, and perfumery
Antirheumatics
Antirheumatic drugs treat rheumatism and reduce joint damage associated with inflammatory disorders.
Colchicum Seed
Family: Liliaceae Biological Source: Dried seeds of Colchicum autumnale Linn. Chemical Constituents: Alkaloids colchicine and demecolcine. Uses:
- Treatment of gout and rheumatism
- Can control malignant tumours (but highly toxic)
- Also used in horticulture
Antitumour Drugs
Antitumour drugs are used in the treatment of cancer — an abnormal mass of new tissue growing uncontrolled in the body.
Vinca (Periwinkle)
Family: Apocynaceae Biological Source: Dried whole plant of Catharanthus roseus. Chemical Constituents: Indole alkaloids — mainly vincristine and vinblastine; also ajmalicine, serpentine, and lochnerine. Uses:
- Vinblastine — treats Hodgkin’s disease and lymphomas
- Vincristine — treats acute lymphocytic leukaemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas
Antidiabetics
Antidiabetic drugs lower abnormally high blood glucose levels caused by the failure of the pancreas to secrete sufficient insulin.
Gymnema (Gudmar)
Family: Asclepiadaceae Biological Source: Leaves of Gymnema sylvestre. Chemical Constituents: Hentriacontane, pentriacontane, phytin, alpha and beta-chlorophylls, resin, tartaric acid. Uses:
- Antidiabetic, stomachic, stimulant laxative, and diuretic
- Used for eye diseases, allergies, constipation, cough, and dental caries
Pterocarpus (Indian Kino)
Family: Leguminosae Biological Source: Juice of Pterocarpus marsupium. Chemical Constituents: Kinotannic acid (70–80%), kino-red, catechol, resin, and gallic acid. Uses:
- Astringent and antidiarrhoeal
- Used in dyeing, tanning, and printing
Diuretics
Diuretics (also known as water pills) promote increased production of urine. They are used in treatment of oedematous and non-oedematous conditions.
Gokhru
Family: Zygophyllaceae Biological Source: Ripened fruits of Tribulus terrestris Linn. Chemical Constituents: Sapogenins — diosgenin, chlorogenin, hecogenin, neotigogenin; also β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and terestiamide. Uses:
- Diuretic tonic; treatment of urinary calculi and painful urination
- Used as an aphrodisiac and in gout
- Ingredient in Chyavanprash and Dashamoolarishta
- Used in treatment of gonorrhoea
Punarnava (Hog Weed)
Family: Nyctaginaceae Biological Source: Fresh and dried herb Boerhaavia diffusa. Chemical Constituents: Punarnavine, potassium nitrate, ursolic acid. Uses:
- Diuretic and expectorant
- Used in treatment of jaundice
Anti-Dysenteric Drugs
Ipecacuanha (Ipecac)
Family: Rubiaceae Biological Source: Dried roots or rhizomes of Cephaelis ipecacuanha. Chemical Constituents: Emetine, psychotrine, ematamine, ipecacuanhic acid, glycoside ipecacuanhin, starch, and calcium oxalate. Uses:
- Emetic, expectorant, and diaphoretic
- Treatment of amoebic dysentery
- Local irritant action
Antiseptics and Disinfectants
Antiseptics are chemical agents applied to living tissues (e.g., skin) to kill pathogenic microbes and stop their growth. Disinfectants are chemical substances applied to non-living surfaces to kill bacteria and their spores.
Benzoin
Family: Styraceae Biological Source: Balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin. Physical Characters: Greyish to brown; aromatic characteristic odour; sweetish and slightly acrid taste. Chemical Constituents: Free balsamic acids and their esters; triterpenic acids — siaresinolic acid and sumaresinolic acid. Uses:
- Expectorant, carminative, diuretic, and antiseptic (external use)
- Used in compound tincture of benzoin
- Used in cosmetics, soaps, and perfumes
- Flavouring agent in pharmaceutical preparations
Myrrh
Family: Burseraceae Biological Source: Obtained from Commiphora molmol. Physical Characters: Reddish to brown; aromatic odour; agreeable taste. Chemical Constituents: Volatile oil containing terpenes, cuminic aldehyde, and eugenol; resin acids (α, β, γ commiphoric acids). Uses:
- Stimulant, antiseptic, and protective
- Astringent to mucous membranes
- Used in mouthwashes and gargles
Neem (Margosa)
Family: Meliaceae Biological Source: Leaves and aerial parts of Azadirachta indica. Chemical Constituents:
- Seeds: Azadirachtin, Salanin, Meliantriol, Meliacin
- Leaves: Nimbosterol, Quercetin
- Bark: Nimbin, Nimbinin, Nimbidin, Nimbosterol
- Neem Oil: Glycerides of oleic (50%) and stearic (20%) acids Uses:
- Antiseptic, insecticide, and antifungal
- Used in anti-insect products
Turmeric (Haldi)
Family: Zingiberaceae Biological Source: Dried and fresh rhizomes of Curcuma longa Linn. Chemical Constituents: Volatile oil, resin, zingiberaceous starch, curcuminoids (yellow colouring substances); also turmerone, zingiberene, borneol. Uses:
- Antiseptic and expectorant
- Used as a colouring agent
Antimalarials
Malaria is caused by four Plasmodium species (malariae, vivax, ovale, falciparum) and transmitted by the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito.
Cinchona (Jesuit’s Bark / Peruvian Bark)
Family: Rubiaceae Biological Source: Dried bark of cultivated trees of Cinchona calisaya. Physical Characters: Brownish-grey to white; slight characteristic odour; bitter and astringent taste. Chemical Constituents: Approximately 30 types of alkaloids — quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, and cinchotannic acids. Uses:
- Antimalarial (primary use)
- Stomachic and tonic
- Antiseptic
- Treatment of dyspepsia and gastric catarrh
Artemisia (Mugwort / Wormwood)
Family: Asteraceae Biological Source: Artemisia annua L. Chemical Constituents: Main constituent is artemisinin — effective against Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum; also contains essential oil (0.2–0.4%) with artemisia ketone (66.7%), 1,8-cineole, myrcene, linalool, and camphor. Uses:
- Antimalarial (artemisinin-based therapy)
- Applied topically for itching relief in severe burn victims
- Used for stomach problems — colic, diarrhoea, cramps, constipation
- Used for epilepsy, irregular menstrual periods, anxiety, and low energy
Oxytocics
Oxytocic drugs stimulate uterine motility. They are used to induce labour, increase contractions, reduce the risk of postpartum haemorrhage, and expel fetal contents in incomplete abortion.
Ergot
Family: Hypocreaceae Biological Source: Dried sclerotium of the fungus Claviceps purpurea. Physical Characters: Dark violet to black; disagreeable faint odour; unpleasant taste. Chemical Constituents:
- Water-soluble: Ergometrine (Ergonovine), ergometrinine
- Water-insoluble: Ergotamine, ergotaminine, ergosinine, ergosine
- Also contains histamine, tyramine, sterols (ergosterol, fungisterol), mannitol, lactic acid Uses:
- Assists uterine contraction during labour and delivery
- Treatment of migraine headaches
- Ergometrine is also known as Ergonovine
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic micronutrients required in small quantities for proper metabolic function. They are obtained through a normal, balanced diet.
Shark Liver Oil
Biological Source: Fixed oil from fresh livers of various shark species, mainly Hypoprion brevirostris. Chemical Constituents: Vitamin A; glycerides of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids; alkylglycerol. Uses:
- Treats Vitamin A deficiency
- Used in burn and sunburn ointments
- Used for leukemia, common cold, flu, and skin problems
Cod Liver Oil
Family: Gadidae Biological Source: Processed from fresh liver of Gadus morrhua and related cod species. Chemical Constituents: Glycerides of oleic, linoleic, myristic, and palmitic acids; Vitamins A and D; cholesterol; squalene; omega-3 fatty acids (EPA 7% + DHA 7%). Uses:
- Source of Vitamins A and D
- Nutritive supplement
- Treatment of rickets and tuberculosis
Enzymes
Enzymes are colloidal, heat-labile protein substances that catalyse biochemical reactions with high specificity.
Papaya
Family: Caricaceae Biological Source: Cultivated fruiting tree Carica papaya Linn. Chemical Constituents: Proteolytic enzymes — papain and chymopapain — present in the latex. Uses:
- Treatment of gastrointestinal tract disorders and intestinal parasite infections
- Used as a sedative and diuretic
- Used for nerve pains
- Clarification of beverages and as a meat tenderiser
Diastase
Biological Source: Amylolytic enzyme present in saliva (salivary diastase/ptyalin) and pancreatic juice (amylopsin). Chemical Constituents: Dextrin, maltose, traces of glucose, and amylolytic enzyme diastase. Uses:
- Used as a digestant
- Production of predigested starchy foods
- Conversion of starch to fermentable sugars in fermentation and brewing industries
Yeast
Family: Saccharomycetaceae Biological Source: Isolated from sugar-rich materials in the environment. Chemical Constituents: 65–85% moisture; Vitamin B group; nitrogenous compounds; glycogen; fat and vitamins. Uses:
- Manufacture of alcohol and beer
- Used in the bread industry
Pancreatin
Biological Source: Digestive enzyme extracted from the pancreas of hogs (Sus scrofa). Chemical Constituents: Amylase, lipase, and protease. Uses:
- Digestive enzyme replacement therapy
- Used when the pancreas cannot produce sufficient digestive enzymes
- Used for indigestion, chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, pancreatic cancer, and post-surgical digestive support
Pharmaceutical Aids
Pharmaceutical aids are substances with little or no pharmacological effect of their own, but are essential in the preparation of pharmaceutical dosage forms such as tablets, injections, and emulsions.
Kaolin (China Clay)
Chemical Formula: Al₂O₂·SiO₂·2H₂O (hydrated aluminium silicate). Uses: Treatment of enteritis, dysentery, and food poisoning; used as dusting powder and in pharmaceutical preparations.
Lanolin (Wool Fat)
Biological Source: Purified fat-like substance from the wool of Ovis aries Linn. Chemical Constituents: Esters of cholesterol and isocholesterol with various fatty acids; contains about 50% water. Uses: Water-absorbable ointment base; common ingredient in water-soluble creams and cosmetics.
Beeswax
Biological Source: Obtained from the honeycomb of Apis mellifera. Chemical Constituents: Straight-chain monohydric alcohols with straight-chain acids; chief constituent is myricin; also contains free cerotic acid, melissic acid, and cerolein. Uses: Manufacturing of candles, moulds, and used in dental and electronic industries.
Acacia (Gum Arabic)
Family: Leguminosae Biological Source: Dried gummy exudate from the stem and branches of Acacia arabica. Chemical Constituents: Calcium, magnesium, and potassium salts of arabic acid. Uses: Demulcent; used intravenously in haemolysis; suspending agent in pharmaceutical mixtures.
Tragacanth
Family: Leguminosae Biological Source: Dried exudate from incisions on Astragalus gummifer. Chemical Constituents: Tragacanthic acid, xylose, fructose, galactose, galacturonic acid, rhamnose, starch, and cellulose. Uses: Demulcent, emollient, thickening, suspending, and emulsifying agent; binding agent in tablets and capsules.
Sodium Alginate
Family: Phaeophyceae (brown algae) Chemical Constituents: Sodium salt of alginic acid — a linear polymer of L-guluronic and D-mannuronic acids. Uses: Thickening, gelling, emulsifying, and stabilizing agent in food products; used in ice cream, jelly, and beer.
Agar
Family: Rhodophyceae Biological Source: Dried gelatinous substance from Gelidium amansii. Chemical Constituents: Two polysaccharides — agarose and agaropectin; also contains cellulose and nitrogen. Uses: Emulsifying agent, bulk laxative, preparation of jellies, and bacteriological culture media.
Guar Gum
Family: Leguminosae Biological Source: Endosperm powder of seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus Linn. Chemical Constituents: Carbohydrate — guaran (yields galactose 35% and mannose 60–65% on hydrolysis); small quantity of protein. Uses: Lowers blood glucose in diabetic patients; used as a binding and disintegrating agent in tablets; bulk laxative; appetite depressant.
Gelatin
Biological Source: Produced by partial hydrolysis of collagenous materials. Chemical Constituents: Protein known as glutin. Uses: Valuable dietary supplement; used in candies, jellies, meat extracts, and jams; used as an antidote for halogen poisoning.
Miscellaneous Drugs
Squill (Sea Onion)
Biological Source: Dried sliced bulb (white variety) of Urginea maritima Linn. Chemical Constituents: Cardiac glycosides — scillaren A and B; also proscillaridin, flavonoid, mucilage, sinistrin. Uses: Expectorant, stimulant, diuretic, and cardiac tonic; used in asthma and as a rat poison in pest control.
Galls
Family: Anacardiaceae Biological Source: Vegetable outgrowths on twigs of dyer’s oak Quercus infectoria. Chemical Constituents: Gallotannic acid (tannins), gallic acid, ellagic acid, sitosterol, syringic acid, starch, and calcium oxalate. Uses: Astringent; used for tanning, dyeing, and manufacturing of ink and tannic acid.
Pale Catechu (Gambier)
Family: Rubiaceae Biological Source: Aqueous extract from leaves and young shoots of Uncaria gambier Roxburgh. Chemical Constituents: Catechin, catechu-tannic acid, catechu-red, quercetin, and gambier fluorescein. Uses: Astringent; used in leather and fabric industries.
Ashwagandha
Family: Solanaceae Biological Source: Dried roots and stem bases of Withania somnifera Dunal. Chemical Constituents: Withanine (main alkaloid); somniferine, pseudo-withanine, tropine, hygrine, and steroidal lactones. Uses: Treatment of nervous disorders, intestinal infections, leprosy, nervous exhaustion, insomnia, wasting diseases, failure to thrive in children, and infertility.
Tulsi (Holy Basil)
Family: Lamiaceae Biological Source: Fresh and dried leaves of Ocimum sanctum Linn. Chemical Constituents: Isothymusin, ursolic acid, eugenol, sinapic acid, rosmarinic acid. Uses: Treatment of heart disease, fever, respiratory problems, insect bites, and skin problems such as acne and blackheads.
D.Pharma 1st Year — All Subjects Notes
D.Pharma 2nd Year — All Subjects Notes